Why Learning Theories Are Relative And How They Affect...

Introduction In the various fields of aviation, individuals learn and behave differently than their peers. In fact, the chances are good the individual themselves will learn and behave differently as they progress throughout their career. This source of change can be the result of many different reasons. For instance, an increased knowledge base will provide the individual with the ability to transfer previous knowledge to a new situation thereby encountering less stress from learning something new. This previous knowledge will also then provide the individual with a clearer understanding of them self with regards to knowing how they learn and behave under a variety of situations. While it’s likely that change in a person’s learning abilities and behaviors will occur throughout their career, the change will be more positive if the proper learning and behavioral techniques are applied. Therefore it helps to understand why learning theories are relative and how they can b e used to change behavior. Learning Defined Learning can be defined as a process by which our behavior, knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes lead to a potential change or a permanent change in how we perceive, interpret and understand our environment or incoming stimuli. As a way to explain how this learning process takes place, numerous theories about learning have been and continue to be developed as a way to further define this process. A theory, though defined many ways, can be understood simply asShow MoreRelatedBehavior of the Student1605 Words   |  7 Pagesintroduction, the theories related to it, the conceptual framework, the statement of the problem, its significance to the group of individual, the scope and limitations, and the definition of important terms used in the study. Introduction The study of human behavior is  absolutely essential for anyone to cultivate positive relations with others and avoid unnecessary conflict. The study of human behavior needs to be part of any educational curriculum program. The study of human behavior helps one toRead MoreEssay about Family Conflict Affects Child Social Development1682 Words   |  7 PagesFamily plays an important role in the positive development of a child’s mind, behavior and in general as a whole. Everyone wants a stable environment whether at home or outside. Stability in life does not last all the time due to stress, conflict or any other issues that sometimes can’t be avoided. Conflict occurs with or without us realizing it. It can happen in our daily lives from the smallest to the biggest issues either with our family, friends, strangers, colleagues or just about anyone weRead MorePsychology: Questions on Cognitive Development1557 Words   |  7 Pagesthe world through twin processes he c alled: a. conservation and revisionism b. motor learning and cognitive learning c. egocentric thinking and magical thinking d. assimilation and accommodation _B___ 5. Social and cognitive influences on how we interpret, organize, and use information characterizes ________. a. Freudian theory b. social role theory c. parent modeling model d. affective-primary theory ____ 6. Boys will be boys and girls will be girls. Parents reward their children wheneverRead MoreDifferential Association Theory Essay1739 Words   |  7 Pagesschool, it’s not hard to see how this behavior drastically affects their quality of education and overall school experiences. Bullying can also produce physical responses such as headaches, stomach pains, anxiety, and possible depression, which in turn can affect the student’s self-esteem and sense of belonging. An issue causing such extreme emotional and physical pain is often addressed by schools in an effort to decrease school-related bullying by showing students how to deal with their differencesRead MoreThe Theory Of The Human Development993 Words   |  4 PagesPart 1: Of the four major psychological theories (ecological, behavioral, humanistic, psychoanalytic), which one(s) is/are most closely aligned with your personal belief system? All four major Psychological theories are very significant, but based on my reading about all of them, I can convey that the ecological theory is the most closely aligned with my personal belief system. Part 2: Why? I chose this theory because it states that a person’s development is influenced by everything in the surroundingRead MoreBandura s Social Learning Theory And Attachment Theory1260 Words   |  6 PagesQuestions 1: Social Learning Theory and Attachment Theory Bandura’s social learning theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory. Each of these theories has similarities and distinctions regarding the mechanisms that underlie the impact of child abuse. This essay will examine these competing theories to determine which mechanisms are most strongly supported for families at high risk for child abuse and/or neglect (Begle, Dumas Hanson, 2010). Social Learning Theory Social learning theory suggests that theRead MorePsychodynamic Theory And Family Counseling1354 Words   |  6 PagesPsychodynamic Theory and Family Counseling Advantages and Disadvantages Psychodynamic therapy has been around for ages, and has been very beneficial for clients who are suffering from an array of difficulties in life. This form of therapy has the client focus on the past and understand how it has positively or negatively affected his/her behavior and outlook on life. There are many advantages and disadvantages to taking this historical approach when working with families. Starting with the advantagesRead Moreconsumer behaviour1622 Words   |  7 PagesCompare and contrast Howard and Sheith model and Nicosa model These different decision making models are approaches the problem of consumer decision making differently. The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model is essentially a conscious problem solving and learning model of consumer behaviour. This model has a good description of active information seeking and evaluation processes of consumer. The information processed in this model is the stimulus. The consumer ¡Ã‚ ¦s decision processes act upon this stimulusRead MoreThe Effects Of Criminal Experience On Perceived Detection Risk956 Words   |  4 PagesThe author’s objective to the question of individuals learning from their offending experiences was a test of deterrability in his study as to the effects of criminal experience on perceived detection risk which he stated varies by criminal propensity. I agree with the author’s statement that â€Å"deterrence works differently for crime-prone individuals.† (p.1) As a society we need to consider that anything experienced after sentencing from treatment received while incarcerated such as education, prisonRead MoreNotes On Autism Spectrum Disorder1656 Words   |  7 Pages What are the historical theories, who are the major contributors, and what are the relevant federal laws underlying the field of ASD? The historical theories that are in the field of ASD all originated with Leo Kanner. His work was started in 1943 where he identified â€Å"autism† using common descriptions. The descriptions lead to a certain criterion that was then used to identify those with ASD. The criteria included, but is not limited to, rare communication behaviors, as well as restricted and

Should Marijuana Be Illegal Drugs - 967 Words

Have you ever believed in something and later came to the realization it just wasn’t true? Perhaps when you were younger, all the children believed in great ole Saint Nick until we became older and realized their really isn t a fat white guy sliding down the chimney delivering presents to families. Well I once had a belief until one day that all changed. Her name was Marijuana. Many people hold extreme views regarding drugs, especially illegal drugs. Anti-drug individuals often present a view of all illegal drugs as horrendous and without any redeeming qualities. I used to be this individual. Before my newfound discovery I believed marijuana usage was unacceptable , while despising the users. I perceived marijuana as a gateway drugs to other harmful dangerous drugs and a narcotic that honestly ruined individuals lives. Personally I believed that marijuana made individuals lazy , while forcing users into having lackadaisical motivational attitudes and being negligent with their futures and education. All of my asinine and irrational beliefs on this narcotic all came to a hault the day I experienced my first high. The first time I got high was after graduation practice and it honestly was one of the best days of my life. My best friend and I decided we would reward ourselves for exceling and graduating high school. My experience smoking marijuana for the first time was sensational. The euphoric feeling I felt had me sitting on cloud nine. All of my worries and stress I hadShow MoreRelatedShould Marijuana Be Legal And Illegal Drugs?872 Words   |  4 Pages Marijuana is one of the most popularly used drugs in the world, and is growing in popularity every year because of the fact that it has great potential for medical use, is relatively harmless compared to other legal and illegal drugs, and can be used to create practical household items. It is popular with many groups as a recreational drug, but recent research has suggested that marijuana can be very useful in medical applic ations. It contains chemicals that affect the central nervous systemRead MoreThe Drug Marijuana916 Words   |  4 PagesMarijuana is one of the most commonly abused drugs around the world and is categorized by the US Drug Enforcement Agency as a schedule I drug. This means it has a higher chance of being abused. (â€Å"Legalization of marijuana: potential impact on youth† 1825). Those who are in support of legalizing marijuana do not understand the negative effects of legalizing marijuana and marijuana use itself. There are several arguments for legalizing marijuana, however, the reasons for keeping it illegal outweighRead MoreEssay Illegal Drugs and Its Impacts1342 Words   |  6 PagesSurvey on Drug Abuse in 2001, 12% of Americans ages 12 and older reported illegal drug use in the past year (Drug Policy Information Clearinghouse, 2003). Some of the most popular drugs include marijuana, cocaine, and heroine. With such widespread use worldwide, illegal drugs have serious so cial and political impacts. Socially, drug use spreads quickly and is closely related to crimes. Politically, drug use sparks the debate between prohibition and legalization. The most widely abuse drug in the UnitedRead MoreMarijuana Laws Restrict The Growth And Use Of Marijuana1513 Words   |  7 PagesMarijuana is â€Å" the dried leaves and female flowers of the hemp plant, used in cigarette form as [a] narcotic or hallucinogen.†(â€Å"Marijuana†) In the 17th century, marijuana production was encouraged and supported by U.S. legislation. Later, â€Å"during the 19th century,[marijuana] use became a fad in France and also, to some extent, in the U.S.†(â€Å" Marijuana Timeline†). During the 1920’s and 1930’s, the drug raised fears linked with illegal immigrants and criminal activity. (â€Å"Marijuana Timeline†). ThenRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1156 Words   |  5 PagesMarijuana Should Not be Legalized As we know, support for marijuana legalization has been increasing in the United States in recent years and several U.S. states have legalized recreational or medical use. But it is correct to legalize the marijuana? Would marijuana harm human beings? Is it addictive? According to this research paper, the conclusion is that marijuana should not be legalized. Marijuana, also known as cannabis and by numerous other names, is a preparation of the cannabis plant intendedRead MoreLegalize Marijuana; Annotated Bibliography Essay1381 Words   |  6 PagesLegalization of Marijuana Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal substance in United States and in many other countries; this is a statement that seems to be in each article that is written about the legalization of marijuana. This is a subject that has been up for debate for quite a few years now. There are many people who support the legalization of this drug and are strongly convinced that marijuana is not a drug in which one should be punished for, but rather a drug that should not be frownedRead More Pro Legalization of Marijuana in the United States Essay1689 Words   |  7 Pagesit seems as if the legalization of marijuana is being set on the back burner of legislation. There are so many opinions, sides, and overall arguments for and against it that many vote seeking politicians and policy makers have put up a strong resistance to this issue. In this paper I will illustrate the reasons why I think marijuana should indeed be legalized and also the arguments from people who disagree and feel that i t should stay an illegal drug. Marijuana has been around for centuries. ItRead MoreGateway Effect of Marijuana Essay1405 Words   |  6 PagesMarijuana has been used by people over many centuries for medical uses. It is a natural pain killer used today as a recreational drug by people all over the world. According to Noel Merino in, â€Å"Introduction to Gateway Drugs: Opposing Viewpoints†, â€Å"a drug is something other than food intended to affect the structure or function of the body†. Marijuana is a very controversial drug and has been outlawed in many countries for its affect on the function of the body. â€Å"Effects may involve hallucinationsRead MoreWhy Marijuana Should Be Illegal1610 Words   |  7 PagesCannabis also known as marijuana, is a plant produced in many countries worldwide. Marijuana was first introduced by the Mexican immigrants for recreational usage, the misconduct of the drug had our whole nation in turmoil so it was voted on to be illegal throughout the whole Unite d States. Marijuana possession is illegal and it is illegal for so many different reason. In fact, there were over 8.2 million marijuana arrest in the united states last year according to ACLU’s original analysis drawnRead MoreThe Social Benefits of Legalization of Marijuana1459 Words   |  6 Pagessocieties. I want to give the definition of Marijuana that is important for my research. â€Å"Marijuana is a mixture of leaves, stems and flowering tops of the hemp plant.†(Marijuana, 317). Today in most countries soft narcotics and especially narcotics like marijuana are illegal. Marijuana is a misunderstood drug that is thought of as dangerous but it isn’t. Because of people’s ignorance and gullibility marijuana has become illegal for all the wrong reasons and should be re-examined for legalization. Society

What You Need to Know About Consecutive Numbers

The concept of consecutive numbers may seem straightforward, but if you search the internet, youll find slightly differing views about what this term means. Consecutive numbers  are numbers that follow each other in order from smallest to largest, in regular counting order, notes  Study.com. Put another way,  consecutive numbers are numbers that  follow each other in order, without gaps, from smallest to largest, according to  MathIsFun. And  Wolfram MathWorld  notes: Consecutive numbers (or more properly, consecutive  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹integers) are integers n1  and n2  such that n2–n1   1 such that n2 follows immediately after n1.​ Algebra problems often ask about properties of consecutive odd or even numbers, or consecutive numbers that increase by multiples of three, such as 3, 6, 9, 12. Learning about consecutive numbers, then, is a bit trickier than is at first apparent. Yet it is an important concept to understand in math, particularly in algebra. Consecutive Number Basics The numbers 3, 6, 9 are not consecutive numbers, but they are consecutive multiples of 3, which means that the numbers are adjacent integers. A problem may ask about consecutive even numbers—2, 4, 6, 8, 10—or consecutive odd numbers—13, 15, 17—where you take one even number and then the very next even number after that or one odd number and the very next odd number. To represent consecutive numbers algebraically, let one of the numbers be x. Then  the next consecutive numbers would be x 1, x 2, and x 3. If the question calls for consecutive even numbers, you would have to ensure that the first number you choose is even. You can do this by letting the first number be 2x instead of x. Take care when selecting the next consecutive even number, though. It is  not  2x 1 since that would not be an even number. Instead, your next even numbers would be 2x 2,  2x 4, and 2x 6. Similarly, consecutive odd numbers would take the form: 2x 1, 2x 3, and 2x 5. Examples of Consecutive Numbers Suppose the sum of two consecutive numbers is 13. What are the numbers? To solve the problem, let the first number be x and the second number be x 1. Then: x ( x 1) 132x 1 132x 12x 6 So, your numbers are 6 and 7. An Alternate Calculation Suppose you had chosen your consecutive numbers differently from the start. In that case, let the first number be x - 3, and the second number be x - 4. These numbers are still consecutive numbers: one comes directly after the other, as follows: (x - 3) (x - 4) 132x - 7 132x 20x 10 Here  you find that x equals 10, while in the previous problem, x was equal to 6. To clear up this seeming discrepancy, substitute 10 for x, as follows: 10 - 3 710 - 4 6 You then have the same answer as in the previous problem. Sometimes  it may be easier if you choose different variables for your consecutive numbers. For example, if you had a problem involving the product of five consecutive numbers, you could calculate it using either of the following two methods: x (x 1) (x 2) (x 3) (x 4)or(x - 2) (x - 1) (x) (x 1) (x 2) The second equation is easier to calculate, however, because it can take advantage of the properties of the  difference of squares. Consecutive Number Questions Try these consecutive number problems. Even if you can figure out some of them without the methods discussed previously, try them using consecutive variables for practice: Four consecutive even numbers have a sum of 92. What are the numbers?Five consecutive numbers have a sum of zero. What are the numbers?Two consecutive odd numbers have a product of 35. What are the numbers?Three consecutive multiples of five have a sum of 75. What are the numbers?The product of two consecutive numbers is 12. What are the numbers?If the sum of four consecutive integers is 46, what are the numbers?The sum of five consecutive even integers is 50. What are the numbers?If you subtract the sum of two consecutive numbers from the product of the same two numbers, the answer is 5. What are the numbers?Do there exist two consecutive odd numbers with a product of 52?Do there exist seven consecutive integers with a sum of 130? Solutions 20, 22, 24, 26-2, -1, 0, 1, 25, 720, 25, 303, 410, 11, 12, 136, 8, 10, 12, 14-2 and -1 OR 3 and 4No. Setting up equations and solving leads to a non-integer solution for x.No. Setting up equations and solving leads to a non-integer solution for x.

Finding a Scapegoat Religious Persecution During the...

Finding a Scapegoat: Religious Persecution During the Great Mortality By the mid-fourteenth century, much of Europe had heard of a plague which ravished central Asia decades prior. Rumors of awful pestilence and death spread though the continent, yet most would not be able to fathom the awaiting catastrophe. Between 1347 and 1351, the mysterious force of the Black Plague was estimated to have killed off one-third to one-half of Europe’s entire population. Although there is now a medical explanation for the occurrence of the plague , religious fanaticism, ignorance, and superstition pervaded the consciousness of Europe’s population. Those attributes, mixed with a great unrelenting plague of unknown origin, led to the inevitable search†¦show more content†¦Within days, the pogrom spread to neighboring villages. In some, the jewish residents were offered conversion, but many would rather, and often did, choose death. In some instances, entire populations in jewish towns committed suicide. One chronicler of the time said â€Å"Moth ers would throw their children into the flames rather them risking them being baptized and then would hurl themselves into fire... to burn with their husbands and children† During the peak years of the plague, more than 200 Jewish communities were wiped out, mostly within the countries of France, Germany, and England. In some places, the Jewish population was driven out, while in most occurrences, riots of christians brought mass destruction to communities. Frankfurt, for instance, had a population of over nineteen-thousand jews in the year 1300. By the end of the century, all of the jews had been killed or fled the city entirely. During the summer of 1348, as the plague moved eastward through France, Germany, and Switzerland, the rumors continued to spread that the Great Mortality was indeed a Jewish plot. Rumors went from vague accusations to more complex and detailed stories. By the autumn of 1348, it was universally understood that the plague wasShow MoreRelatedIs Trump s Xenophobic Rhetoric And Propagandizing Helped Win Him The Election? Essay1782 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Trump announced, at a rally in Mount Pleasant, S.C. during his run for the Republican nomination, that he would call for a total and complete shutdown of Muslims in the United States and compared his plan, favorably, with the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. He also claimed he would send Syrian refugees already accepted into the U.S. back to Syria if made President, saying â€Å"I m putting the people on notice that are coming here from Syria as part of this mass

Why Do People Use Drugs Free Essays

PSY215: DRUGS AND DEPENDENCY ESSAY ONE WHY DO PEOPLE USE DRUGS? LACHLAN SLOAN 30790798 Throughout history, people have used different kinds of drugs to alter the way they feel or experience consciousness. Ritualistic use of drugs has been commonly practiced by various cultures such as the mushroom induced trance state utilised by Native American Indians to commune with the Great Spirit. Pacific Islanders drink Kava as a means of connecting with the supernatural, healing illness and welcoming guests to the community. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Do People Use Drugs? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Whilst Indians referred to being consciously high as the state of ‘Shiva’ and associated this process with the worship of one of their prime deities, Shiva. Over time the ritualistic use of drugs has integrated as a part of modern society which can be observed in celebrations such as weddings and birthdays where alcohol is commonly consumed. As there is such a vast range of drugs and influences available with many established uses and categorisations the process of determining why people use drugs becomes intricate very rapidly. Norman E Zinberg developed a theory on drug use which is a widely accepted public health model. The basis of this theory argues that it is not possible to understand drug use, the effects or the outcomes of the drug experience unless you take into account the interrelationship of factors between: the drug, the environment and the individual (Zinberg, 1986). For the purpose of this analysis various aspects of influence have been categorised based on Zinberg’s theory to coherently convey why people use drugs. The categorizations are as follows: Individual (cognition, genetics, and physical/psychological state), drug (perceived functions of drug use in society/specific purpose for using a particular substance, drug related expectancies and compulsive use) and environment (social/contextual level). Boys et al (2001) recorded among a study of 364 participants that had used cannabis over the past year that, the two most popular reasons for using the drug were to ‘just get really stoned or intoxicated’ (90. 7%) and ‘help you to relax’ (96. 8%). People using drugs often state that they use them to feel ‘good’. What makes these people feel ‘good’ is the way in which the chemicals in these drugs influence cognition. This state of feeling ‘good’ and or being high is attained because most drugs act on the limbic system in the brain, referred to as the ‘pleasure centre’. The presynaptic terminal releases the neurotransmitters Dopamine, Noradrenaline and Serotonin via nerves located at the terminal. These neurotransmitters are released and travel to the post synaptic terminal where specific receptor sites are located on the nerve cell for each neurotransmitter. Here nerve action potential is developed via neurotransmitter action on the receptor site. Prevalent drugs act by blocking, mimicking or stimulating the release of neurotransmitters via the presynaptic terminal. When Dopamine levels are increased, mimicked or reuptake is permitted (blocked) the reward pathway in the brain is affected which when stimulated creates feelings of pleasure and euphoria (pleasure is associated with reward). The ingested drug is hence associated with pleasure and reward and the person is influenced to continue using the particular drug. Current cognitive-motivational theories of addiction assert that prioritising appetitive, reward-related information plays an inherent role in the development and continuation of substance abuse (Field Cox, 2008; Franken, 2003; Wiers et al 2007). A study focused on reward-related attentional processes among 682 young adolescents (mean age= 16. 14) had participants complete a motivated game in the format of a spatial orienting task as a behavioural index of appetitive-related attentional processes and a questionnaire to index substance (alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis) use. Correlational analysis showed a positive relationship between substance use and enhanced attentional engagement, with cues that predicted potential reward and non- punishment (Ostafin et al, 2013). Research since the mid 1960’s has established that genetics play a modest (yet relevant) role in the development of drug use problems in some individuals (Pickens, 1988; Farrell Strang, 1992; Hill, 1993). It has been conveyed by Mcgue (1994) that genetics have an influence on a person’s disposition to use drugs. After a review of literature on genetics research in relation to alcoholism, Mcgue established that genetic factors exert a moderate influence on male and female risk for alcoholism. It has been suggested by Hansler (2001) that mental illness motivates sufferers to take drugs (prescription and recreational), this process can cause drug problems (when a person takes drugs in the hope of escaping their symptoms or becomes dependent on a prescription drug). Examples include a person suffering from social anxiety ingesting cocaine in order to temperamentally enhance their sociability when going out with friends. Most of the evidence, however, seems to indicate that these factors can lead to problems; that is, biological, social and/or environmental factors predispose a person to have both a mental health and a substance abuse problem. Aesthetics and physicality are also motivators for drug use. A person will ingest substances to alter the physical nature of their body, primarily due to the fact that they are not satisfied with a particular aspect of their physical self. Examples include; performance enhancing drugs (steroids), Viagra and antibiotics. In beginning the process of analysing the perceived functions of drug use/specific purpose for using a particular substance, psychoactive drugs are the first place to start as due to the broad range of this category. The classification of psychoactive drugs is sub divided into three categories (with some drugs falling into more than one category); Depressants, Stimulants and Hallucinogens. Depressants work by inhibiting the activity of the CNS (Central Nervous System), which slows down various bodily functions such as heart rate and breathing. This classification of drugs has with it a reputation inherent within society as having a calming effect (popularised primarily due to alcohol its acceptance and availability). People generally take this type of drug to relax, another primary function and motivation of the use of depressants is to combat the effects of stress and anxiety (reduces nerves and relaxes muscle). These drugs are typically easy to obtain being available illegally and legally. Examples include acquiring a depressant legally via a doctor’s prescription or benzodiazepines to treat anxiety and purchasing marijuana from a local drug dealer in order to alleviate stress from work. Stimulants work by stimulating the CNS (increasing brain activity) which causes the body to become more aroused and responsive. Hence stimulants elevate the mood, create excitement and even induce a state of euphoria. Due to the nature of stimulants improving responsiveness this category of drug is associated with increasing peopl e’s energy levels as brain activity is dramatically increased. Stimulants are widely available legally and illegally with the most common being caffeine, which is the most widely used drug in the world (Julien, 2001). Hallucinogens are a class of drug that alter perceptual functions; sight, hearing, smell, taste or physical touch. Hallucinogens disrupt how the nerve cells and the neurotransmitter serotonin interact with the CNS. By altering the natural levels of serotonin in the body, hallucinogens alter the way in which your brain processes information relevant to perceptual functions. The inhibition of the user’s perceptual functions allows for the body to generate an intense high. Hence many users of hallucinogens utilise this type of drug to experience the intensity of the high and/or to escape reality. Examples of hallucinogens include; magic mushrooms, marijuana and LSD. A web based survey of 96 (50 female, 46 male) regular drinking college students over a ten week period) reported on their previous week alcohol use and experience of 24 alcohol-related consequences, including their subjective evaluations of those consequences. Most notably of the results, hierarchical linear model tests revealed that students drank less and experienced fewer consequences following weeks in which they rated their consequences as more negative (relative to their own typical subjective evaluations), suggesting that viewing one’s recent consequences as aversive prompts self-initiated behaviour change. It was conveyed by Boys et al (1999) that significant relationships between perceived functions and both the persons intentions to use the drug again in the future and the recent use of a particular drug. Data was collected from a cross sectional survey of one hundred participants aged 16 – 21 years of age. Higher scores on a five item social/contextual function scale (Eg. using a drug to help you feel more confident in a social situation) were associated with a greater frequency of recent cannabis use. Drug expectancy is a psychoactive process that occurs as a response to an individual’s expectation that a drug induced effect will occur. Drug expectancy divulges the nature of a person desire to experience the effects from a particular drug(s). The effect occurs from a person’s own experience with a drug, education, feedback from peers/family and media influence. Once acquired via direct experience with a drug, the memory network of positive expectancies can be primed by internal or external drug associated cues. Primed expectancies are thought to guide subsequent drug use (Hersen, 2013). Self-reports from 704 college students were content analysed and used to develop the Marijuana Effect Expectancy Questionnaire. Responses were examined using exploratory and confirmatory principle components analysis. Six marijuana expectancies (34. 6% of variance) were identified: (a) cognitive and behavioural impairment, (b) relaxation and tension reduction, (c) social and sexual facilitation, (d) perceptual and cognitive enhancement, (e) global negative effects, and (f) craving and physical effects (Schafer Brown, 1991). When a person begins using a drug on a regular basis they begin to become dependent on the drug. As tolerance towards the drug grows in the person they become more dependent on the drug in order to achieve the same effect they attained from their first usage. Drug dependency can manifest in both physical/psychological forms. This can be classified in the sense that the body requires the drug to function properly relating to either form of classification. When a person abstains from retaining the normal level of the abused drug in their blood withdrawal symptoms begin to act. Those with a physiological dependency experience physical discomfort, shaking, nausea and vomiting as withdrawal symptoms. People with a Psychological dependence feel depressive, anxious, aggressive and irritated. Research supports the belief that the negative nature of withdrawal symptoms is associated with drug users continued abuse of a certain drug (Rogers, 2002). Social/contextual level influences have a massive level of governance over a person’s rationalising to use drugs. College students say they utilise alcohol and drugs in order to lessen depression, increase sociability, satisfy curiosity, heighten sexual pleasure, alleviate physical discomfort and expand consciousness (Robbins et al. , 1970). Association with peers tilising drugs is one of the strongest predictors of adolescent drug use (Fergusson et al, 1995; Brook et al, 1990). If other members of the group begin using drugs, some people are influenced to trade sobriety for use in order to fit in and adapt to the group. Motivation for this exists in the individual wanting to conform to the dynamics of the group paired with fear of rejection from the group. An example of this is conveyed by Hohman et al (2013) via a study of data obtained from the National Survey of Parents and Youth (N= 1,604). Two hierarchical multiple regression models were developed examining the association between ambivalent attitudes, intentions and later marijuana use. The hierarchical models consisted of; an analysis of the moderating effect of ambivalence on the persons intent to use marijuana and the testing of the moderation of ambivalence on literal marijuana use a year later. Results from both hierarchical analyses propose that ambivalence moderated the association of friend norms and subsequent adolescent marijuana use: friend norms were better predictors of marijuana intentions (? 0. 151, t = 2. 29, p = 0. 02) and subsequent use when adolescents were attitudinally ambivalent about marijuana use (? = 0. 071, t = 2. 76, p = 0. 006). The environment of a person greatly influences their susceptibility to drug use. Not only does the social context of a person influence drug use but the environment itself plays a very influential role. A study undertaken in Zinberg’s ‘Drug, Set, And Se tting: The Basis For Controlled Intoxicant Use’, analysed a group of American soldiers who began using and became addicted to heroin during the Vietnam war. After the war effort, usage â€Å"virtually ceased†, with only 12% of the soldiers remaining addicted after returning back to the United States. It is evident that these American soldiers were utilising heroin as a form of escapism, a way to disassociate themselves from the harsh reality they were situated in. Hence it can be expected that a person’s socioeconomic status would affect their use of drugs. People living in a negative environment and/or of a lower socio economic status would be more likely to turn to drug use as a means of dealing with and escaping their predicament. In the process of determining why people use drugs a diverse range of conclusions have been reached via a model representative of Zinberg’s theory. We began by stating the ritual usages practiced for thousands of years which have transcended into society after society. We begin with Zinberg’s notion of the individual and diverge into the way in which human cognition is affected by drugs. As this topic is explored it is conveyed just how susceptible our brains are to drug use and why we enjoy the temperamental effects drugs create. Genetics, physical and psychological disposition are also conveyed as influencing reasoning for drug use. Drugs are addressed via the perceived functions of illegal and legal drugs by an analysis of drug categorisations where perceived functions and reasons for use are conveyed. Drug expectancy and tolerance is explained and the reasoning for continued use and addiction is communicated via a study by Schafer Brown (1991). The social/contextual level of influence is analysed via various studies by Zinberg (1986) and Hohman (2013) conveying environmental and social influences. People ingest a diversity of different drugs for a variety of different reasons; socialisation, environmental factors, perceived norms, to relax, pleasure, to conform, genetics, addiction, out of boredom or curiosity or to escape their problems. Reference List Boys, A. , Marsden, J. , Fountain, J. , Griffiths, P. , Stillwell, G. , Strang, J. (1999). What influences young people’s use of drugs? A qualitative study of decision-making. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy,  6,  373–389. Boys, A. , Marsden, J. , ; Strang, J. 2001) Understanding reasons for drug use amongst young people: a functional perspective. Health Education Research, 16  (4), 457-469. DOI:  10. 1093/her/16. 4. 457. Field, M. , ; Cox, W. M. (2008). Attentional bias in addictive behaviours: a review of its development, causes, and consequences. American Journal of Psychology, 84, 349 – 358 DOI: 10. 1016/j. drugalcdep. 2008. 03. 030. Franken, I. H. (2003). Drug craving and addiction: in tegrating psychological and neuropsychopharmacological approaches, 4, 563 – 79. Hansler, V. (2001). The Inherent Disposition to Drug Abuse, 9, 32 – 47, New York: Worth Publishers. Hersen, M. (2013). Principles of Addiction: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviours and Disorders, 1, 426 – 429 Hill, W. G. (1993). Variation in genetic composition in back crossing programs, 84, 212-213. Hohman, Z. , Crano, W. , Siegel, J. , ; Alvaro E. (2013). Attitude ambivalence, friend norms, and adolescent drug use. Prevention Science, Germany: Springer, DOI: 10. 1007/s11121-013-0368-8. Julien, R. M. (2001). A Primer of Drug Action, 4, 88-105, New York: Worth Publishers. Mcgue, M. (1994). Genes, environment and the etiology of Alcoholism. The development of alcohol problems, exploring the biopsychosocial matrix of risk, 26, 1 – 40. Merrill, J. E. , Jennifer, P. , ; Barnett, N. P. (2013). The Way One Thinks Affects the Way One Drinks: Subjective Evaluations of Alcohol Consequences Predict Subsequent Change in Drinking Behaviour,  Psychology of Addictive Behaviours,  27, 42-51. Robbins L. , Edwin, S. , William, A. , Stern, F. , ; Stern M. (1970). College Student Drug Use. American Journal of Psychiatry 126, 12, 1743 – 1751. Rogers, D. (2002). Substance Dependency: Consequences and the Path to Recovery, 8, 78 – 81. Schafer, J. , ; Brown, S. A. (1991). Marijuana and cocaine expectancies and drug use patterns, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 558 – 565. Schuster, C. , ; Pickens, R. (1988). AIDS and Intravenous Drug Abuse, Problems of drug dependence 1988, 7, 241 – 252. Strang, J. , ; Farrell, M. (1992). Harm Minimisation for Drug Misusers, 3, 1127–1128, London: Sage Van Hemel-Ruiter, M. E. , DeJong, P. J. , Albertine, J. , ; Brian D. Ostafin. 2013). Reward- Related Attentional Biases and Adolescent Substance use: The TRAILS Study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours, 27, 142-150. Wiers, R. W. , Bartholow, B. D. , Van Den-Wildenberg, E. , Thush, C. , Engels, R. , Sher, K. J. , Grenard, J. , Ames, S. L. , ; Stacy, A. W. (2007). Automatic and controlled processes and the development of addictive behaviors in adolescents: a review and a model. Pharmacol Biochem Beha viour, 86, 263–283. Zinberg, N (1986). Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis For Controlled Intoxicant Use, 10-11, Yale University Press. 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Application of Time driven Activity Based - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Application of Time Driven Activity Based. Answer: Introduction and Description of Client The world is changing and change itself is changing. With the passage of time, the Universe of Business and Management is witnessing tectonic shift in Business Environment and Business Practices. For Instance, the concept of ABC was popular in 1990s. In the present era, without underestimating the utility of ABC System, the concept of ABC system of costing has been replaced by better alternative practice Time-Driven Activity based costing (TDABC). TDABC looks fool-proof and fined tuned with the need of an hour. However, in real life it has lost some relevance with the change in facts and circumstances and changing size of business organisations The discussion on the Time-Driven Activity based costing (TDABC) will be explained with the help of example of Cases Study. The client of Management Consultancy firm is an entrepreneur who owns and manages Hotel. His Hotel provides various services: Food Services, Room Services, reception of guests, Dance floor, Event management and other related services. He has already implemented Activity Based Costing. Now he has expanded his operation by infusing $ 100 million dollars. However, he has cost escalation issue. Further, he recently attended seminar on Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing. He wants an analysis on whether he should replace Activity Based Costing System (ABC) by Time-Driven Activity based costing (TDABC) or continue with ABC system. His objective is to know the various costs exactly, control cost and expenditure and consequently increase profit margin. Description of Time-Driven Activity Based Management and its features Before 1985, Costing Systems were not advanced and were not prevalent among various Industries. However, in 1987, Cooper and Kaplan devised the concept of Activity Based Costing System (The Economist, 2018). Within few years, it became the buzzword of Corporates as it solved the cost escalation issues of thousands of companies. However, with the passage of time and advancement in Information and Communication Technology, the businesses became complex and difficult to manage (Miller, 2018). Now ABC system has lost relevance in managing large Organisations as with the passage of time activities of business have become complex. Moreover, ABC system is difficult to implement. Adding further it is difficult to maintain (Onlinemasters.ohio.edu, 2018).Secondly, ABC system became less effective as this method was not capable of taking into consideration the complexity of operations of enterprises, was expensive to install and took long time in implementation. Moreover, when employees are assessed on how much time they have spent on various activities, they report partial metrics as they do not disclose idle or unused time (Simplestudies.com, 2018). So, in ABC System, full capacity is assumed that provides biased results and biased interpretation (Oklu, R., Haas, D., Kaplan, R., Brinegar, K., Bassoff, N., Harvey, H., Brink, J. and Prabhakar, A., 2018). This leads to assessing of cost-driver rates that are too high and wrong. However, TDABC considers realistic figures by deducting idle time of chats and other informal activities. In TDABC, management assesses resource demand as per each transaction, customer or product rather than assigning resource cost to the activities in the first step and then to customers or products. Moreover in TDABC only two parameters are considered: Cost per time unit of supplying capacity of resources and unit times of consumption of resources by customers, services or producers (Kaplan and Anderson, 2006). The fact that ABC System has disadvantages doesnt mean it has no utility (Barndt, Oehlers and Soltis, 2018).ABC method has solved dilemma of hundreds of companies (Campanale, Cinquini and Tenucci, 2018).Consequently Time-Driven Activity Based Costing (TDABC) was devised by RS Kaplan and Steven R.Anderson in the year 2004 and soon became popular and replaced traditional ABC.TDABC takes into consideration duration cost drivers (hours or minutes) in place of Transaction cost drivers (number of Bills processed). Only two yardsticks are required in TDABC: cost per time unit for supplying resources and the unit times of usage of resource capacity by products, customers and services (Tibor, L., Schultz, S., Menaker, R., Weber, B., Ness, J., Smith, P. and Young, P., 2018).The ABC system has assisted many organisations by improving processes on Shop floor, low cost designs of products and other benefits (Bahnub, 2010). Difference between ABC System and TDABC In ABC system, Decision making takes place at product level while in TDABC decisions takes place at both product level and process level (Wiese, 2009).In ABC System, the focus is on financial measures whereas in TDABC focus is on non financial measures(Kaplan and Cooper, 1998). Illustration showing contrast between Activity Based Costing System and Time-driven Activity Based Costing ABC System Time-driven Activity Based Costing The input of ABC System is transaction cost driver (for instance number of Accounts Payable invoices processed). In ABC System it is assumed that Accounts Payable Clerk incurs following costs: $10 per invoice processed and $ 6 per credit Application. Further it is assumed that 14,000 Accounts Payable in invoices and 10,000 credit Applications have been processed by Clerk. The input of TDABC System is duration cost drivers (for instance hours or minutes). Under TDABC it is assumed that it takes about 7 minutes to process an Accounts Payable Invoice and 6 minutes for applying to Credit Application. So the Unit cost as per TDABC is as follows: Cost of input resources/Practical Capacity =Cost of Input Resources/ Practical Capacity = $2,00,000/2,12,160 minutes = $.94 per minute So Cost of Processing an Accounts Payable Invoice = (7 minutes) ($.94 per minute) = $6.58 per invoice Cost of Applying for one credit application (6 minutes) ($.94 per minute) = $5.64 per credit application. How the figure of 212,160 has been calculated? Capacity of clerk is limited to 249,600 minutes per annum, however, under TDABC capacity of 212,160 minutes per annum of clerk has been considered. Reason being in Reality, it is impossible that the entire time span of 249,600 minutes will be utilised by clerk in production. Reason being, in the real scenario, it is impossible that entire time span of 249,600 minutes will be utilised in productive activities relative to production. Clerks will also consume some time in taking lunch, chatting with peers, attending phone calls etc. Consequently, employee will not utilise all available 249,600 minutes. In reality, clerk will utilize 85% of 249,600 units i.e. 212,160 minutes in production. Time consumed in Production = (14,000) ($7) + (10,000)(6)=1,58,000 minutes. However total productive capacity of clerk has been determined at 212,160 minutes. But actual time used in production is 158,000 minutes. Difference=212,160-158,000= 54,160 minutes. So 27,080 minutes is non productive time. So unutilised capacity of clerk = [54,160/212,160] (100) =25 per cent. This 25 per cent unutilised capacity will be favourable if clerk has done some other job which doesnt fall under his duty. Otherwise 25 per cent time would be unfavourable for company. ABC Method suffers from other limitations also. Other features of TDABC TDABC is in widespread and used to a great extent across the Globe.However, Critics disfavours ABC System as it is not suitable for complex operations. The focus in TDABC is on time equation.Product Costing Systems are the core ingredients in many management processes like Budgeting, Price Setting etc. It is virtually impossible for business to calculate error-free product costs. TDABC is not a complicated model but it accommodates complicated transactions that can be easily installed and can handle complex situations. Moreover, it is easy to maintainit andits scope can be enlarged whenever there is requirement. In the present era, TDABC can be labelled as most apt and perfect cost model. It takes into consideration only two parameters: per unit cost of providing capacity and estimating the time that is needed to perform an activity. Phases in Time-driven Activity based costing Calculating Departmental Costs TDABC ignores taking employee survey results and then assign cost of resources to cost pools. In the first step cost is accumulated at the department level for the purpose of determining unit cost of capacity. Departmental Costs includes the following costs: Salaries of employees along with fringe benefits. Salaries related to supervision work Salary of Indirect labour The wear and tear i.e. depreciation on technology equipments that are used by employees and supervisors of Organisation. Occupancy cost of supervisor and employees Other related costs to support company functions. What should be done or emphasised? Sustaining expenses of organisation should be considered. The above-mentioned costs are difficult to trace to operating units. TDABC analysis should be extended to shared services. Calculating Practical Capacity TDABC utilises time to drive cost. Capacity is measured in time (seconds, minutes or hours) that employees have to use for executing activities related to work (Haron, 2010). Total Capacity is measured in machine hours available multiplied by number of employees. But the time allotted is not the total time utilised in performing activities. Employees will use some time in chatting with peers and other informal activities(Kaplan and Anderson, 2007).So Machine hours should be reduced after considering informal activities to reach the figure of Practical Capacity. Identification of Activities The next step is the identification of activities that are performed in each department. The activity dictionary of ABC system is helpful in identifying the processes. Flow charts and narratives can also be prepared. With the adoption of TDABC employee survey have been replaced by estimates of the time or capacity that is required to perform an activity and present it in terms of equation. The equations includes base time that is required to process a transaction along with time required for variation in the activities that would be witnessed.Commonly, Equations are formed by starting with principal factor of transaction and then adding variables. It is better to start with the most costly processes. After defining processes, the important variables or drivers that consume time are identified. In the first step, it is easier to use driver data that has been previously collected instead of developing and expanding data collection facilities. The format of time equation is as follows: Depending on the resource availability, transaction base times along with time required to accomplish each variable can be determined. Industrial engineering data of time and motion studies provides valuable information. The two approaches for data gathering and observation are employee survey and observation of the transactions being processed and then taking into consideration average time. TDBAC takes into consideration less data in comparison to ABC System. However, TDABC requires transaction data on customers, products, orders and other cost objects. Companies that have installed Enterprise Resource Planning already process rich data. Rest of the organisations have to invest in the necessary technology. It is better to start with test drive: pilot study or small-scale implementation. The advantage of TDABC is that time equations can be updated for improvements. Conclusion So Time-Driven Activity based costing is suitable for the client who is the entrepreneur, manages the hotel and is currently planning to expand operations by infusing funds. Company is also facing cost escalation issue. Further, Time-based Activity Based Costing in the above-mentioned hotel has lost relevance since the hotel considered will operate on large scale. ABC is very difficult to utilise in case of large organisations. Last but not the least, It is better to implement TDABC since company is facing complexity in operations due to expansion. References: Bahnub, B. (2010). Activity-Based Management for Financial Institutions: Driving Bottom-Line Results. Indianapolis: Wiley. Barndt, R., Oehlers, P. and Soltis, G. (2018). Time-Driven Activity Based Costing: A Powerful Cost Model. [online] Tscpa.org. Available at: https://www.tscpa.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/activitybasedcostmodel_marapril2015.pdf?sfvrsn=2 [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Campanale, C., Cinquini, L. and Tenucci, A. (2018). Time-driven activity-based costing to improve transparency and decision making in healthcare | A case study | Qualitative Research in Accounting Management | Vol 11, No 2. [online] Emeraldinsight.com. Available at: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/QRAM-04-2014-0036 [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Haron, A. (2010). Application of Time-driven Activity Based Costing (TDABC) for Small-medium Enterprise (SME) Company. Johor: UniversitiTeknologi Malaysia. Kaplan, R. and Anderson, S. (2006). Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing. [online] HBS Working Knowledge. Available at: https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/time-driven-activity-based-costing [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Kaplan, R. and Anderson, S. (2007). Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing: A Simpler and More Powerful Path to Higher Profits. Massachusetts: Harvard Business Press. Kaplan, R. and Cooper, R. (1998). Cost Effect: Using Integrated Cost Systems to Drive Profitability and Performance. Massachusetts: Harvard Business Press. Miller, T. (2018). The ABCs of Activity-Based Costing for Logistics. [online] Material Handling and Logistics (MHL News). Available at: https://www.mhlnews.com/transportation-distribution/abcs-activity-based-costing-logistics [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Oklu, R., Haas, D., Kaplan, R., Brinegar, K., Bassoff, N., Harvey, H., Brink, J. and Prabhakar, A. (2018). Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing in IR. [online]Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology. Available at: https://www.jvir.org/article/S1051-0443(15)00660-0/abstract [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Onlinemasters.ohio.edu. (2018). Using Activity-Based Costing (ABC) to Increase Profitability | Ohio University. [online] Available at: https://onlinemasters.ohio.edu/using-activity-based-costing-abc-to-increase-profitability/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Simplestudies.com. (2018). A different approach to activity-based costing (ABC) - Accounting guide | Simplestudies.com. [online] Available at: https://simplestudies.com/different_approach_to_activity_based_costing_abc.html/page/2 [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. The Economist. (2018). Activity-based costing. [online] Available at: https://www.economist.com/node/13933812 [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Tibor, L., Schultz, S., Menaker, R., Weber, B., Ness, J., Smith, P. and Young, P. (2018). Improving Efficiency Using Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing Methodology. [online] Journal of the American College of Radiology. Available at: https://www.jacr.org/article/S1546-1440(16)31323-0/abstract [Accessed 4 Jan. 2018]. Wiese, N. (2009). Activity-Based-Costing (ABC). Munich: GRIN Verlag.

Diffusion of Buddhism and Hinduism free essay sample

The changes in the diffusion of Buddhism and Hinduism through 600 CE greatly impacted these religions such as the popularity of the religions in India and where the religions was being diffused; however, a few continuities existed such as they both originated in India. Since Hinduism reinforces the caste system and Buddhism believe in equal treatment of all people which opposes the caste system, Buddhism started to spread into other areas other than India to offer an alternative to Hinduism for those in a lower caste. As Buddhism started to diffuse into other regions, the popularity of Buddhism in India started to decline because Hinduism gradually displaced them and became the more popular religion in India. Hinduism beliefs still continue to influence Indian society today. This changed more likely occurred because Buddhism would not have been as compatible with Indian culture in India as Hinduism has a more stronger tie to Indian culture like the reinforced caste system. We will write a custom essay sample on Diffusion of Buddhism and Hinduism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The spread of Buddhism through 600 CE was diffused among other countries. Buddhism started out in India and rapidly grew throughout the world eventually traveling along the Silk Road and spreading to areas like China, Korea, and Japan. While Buddhism was spreading in other countries, Hinduism tended to stay mostly in India. Because Hinduism was more complex, it made Buddhism more easier to comprehend and understand because they accepted everyone equally while Hinduism werent accepting of people not born into the caste system. This change more likely occurred because Buddhism and Hinduism have slightly different views on the equality of people which benefited Buddhism to diffuse their religion in other areas besides India.